Microbiological safety and antibiotic resistance risks at a sustainable farm under large-scale open-air composting and composting toilet systems

This study evaluated the microbial safety and antibiotic resistance risks of a sustainable ecological farm under large-scale open-air composting (OC) green toilet systems (CT). Samples livestock manure, compost, soil, vegetables, rainwater were analysed to determine best treatment wastes risk assessment land application. Results showed that pathogenic bacteria (PB) in manure was significantly greater than surrounding topsoil, while distribution resistant amoxicillin (AMX), tetracycline (TC), amoxicillin-tetracycline (AMX- TC) opposite through long-term selection pressure. E. coli Enterococcus dominant pathogens feces respectively, AMX-resistant dominated vegetable samples. Overall, OC may increase effectively remove fecal PB, CT offers faster consumption with (ARB) removal but more PB. Moreover, PB ARB concentrated mature soil planting areas, rainwater. In AMX-TC-resistant bacterial communities displayed similar composition. These findings explain main pathways transmission, migration accumulation farms, potential human health food chain.